disadvantages of animal studies in psychology

For example, organizations that place assistance dogs may have housing, familial, physical, or even financial requirements for potential recipients that should be subsequently reported in the manuscript to fully define the population. PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US. Despite the purpose of these assistance dogs specifically for physical tasks, positive outcomes were noted in psychological, social, quality of life, and vitality domains. Undergraduates sometimes ask what the value of animal research is in psychology. Comparative Psychology - Simply Psychology Hall et al. However, none of the four studies using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale [CES-D; 52] found significant differences in self-reported depression among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group [3941] or after 4-months with a mobility service dog [28]. Therefore, future studies are warranted that specifically assess health and wellbeing using validated parent-proxy or self-report measures to fully understand the potential effects that assistance dogs can have on children and adolescents with disabilities. However, increasingly modern methods allow the 3R principle of reducing, refining and replacing animal experiments to be put into practice . The authors concluded that although results are promising, conclusions drawn from the results must be considered with caution [9]. The principle disadvantage with animal experiments is the problem of generalisability. PLoS ONE 15(12): The specific aims were to (1) describe the key characteristics of studies (2) evaluate the methodological rigor of studies (3) summarize outcomes. In the sub-category of independence, a total of 20 comparisons were made in which 9 (45%) were significant, but 3 (15%) were in the negative direction. Most articles were published in the 2010s, indicating an increasing publication interest in this topic over time. In other contexts, dogs can be specially trained to provide specific benefits to individuals with impairments, disabilities, or chronic conditions as trained assistance animals. However, methodological rigor did not significantly differ by study design (t(25) = -0.940, p = 0.356). Therefore, in the cases where positive outcomes were reported in these studies, it is unknown what amount of time with an assistance dog the finding was associated with (and therefore difficult to compare to findings from other studies). In addition, null findings were reported on standardized measures of family role 3-, 6-, and 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog [15], discrimination and social inclusion 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog [34], and family and social self-concept among mobility dog users compared to a control group [37]. Compared to those on the waitlist, individuals with an assistance dog report better psychosocial functioning and wellbeing [16, 17]. Cross-sectional studies had the highest sample sizes with an average sample size of N = 126 +/- 73 participants (range of N = 38316), while longitudinal studies averaged N = 29 +/- 18 participants (range of N = 1055). However, a recent 2018 review summarized five published quantitative studies describing outcomes from seizure alert and seizure response service dogs. A total of 1,830 records were screened via title and abstract in which 1,576 records were excluded due to irrelevancy (see Fig 1 for PRISMA diagram). John Capitanio, PhD, is a research psychologist in the department of psychology at the University of California, Davis, and a core scientist at the California National Primate Research Center. However, almost all positive findings were accompanied by a null finding using the same or similar standardized measure in a different study. The results of Harlow's experiments indicated that this early maternal deprivation led to serious and irreversible emotional damage. Can you really generalise results from animals to humans? Guest [13] used the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51], finding less overall mood disturbance, less tension, and less confusion 3-months after hearing dog placement. To assess methodological rigor, a total of 15 extracted items were sourced from methodological assessment tools including the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Study Quality Assessment Tools [24], the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) checklist [25], the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) checklists [26], and the Specialist Unit for Review Evidence (SURE) Checklists [27]. of Agriculture, and, at the local level by Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs). [16] found no difference in sleep disturbance between individuals with mobility or medical service dog and a control group. The remaining studies were quasi-experimental in that they did not use randomized assignment to treatment or control groups. However, only 1/6 (17%) found a significant effect, in which Yarmolkevich found higher life satisfaction among those with a guide dog compared to a control group. One author argued that an important methodological issue is the absence of appropriate measures in measuring the effect of an assistance dog on recipients lives [32]. However, results suggested that for most outcomes, having an assistance dog had no effect on psychosocial health and wellbeing. Using a new technique, it is now possible to temporarily inactivate the amygdala in a monkey and see how other brain areas (including those that are not directly connected to the amygdala) change their activity (Grayson et al., 2016). The process of animal model building, development and evaluation has rarely been addressed systematically, despite the long history of using animal models in the investigation of neuropsychiatric disorders and behavioral dysfunctions. They argue that all life is sacred and animals go through a lot of distress during experiments in which they involuntarily take part. The deprived monkeys became unable to integrate socially, unable to form attachments, and were severely emotionally disturbed. Six comparisons were made to measure the effect of having an assistance dog on clinical measures of depression or anxiety. For example, the benefits of an assistance dog for a socially isolated individual who experiences periodic anxiety and depression may be significantly different than an individual without these characteristics. In fact, positive, null, and negative findings are equally instrumental in understanding the complexities of the role that assistance dogs play in the lives of individuals with physical disabilities. However, Guest et al. The disadvantage of animal research is that it lessens the value of life. performing mobility-related tasks such as pulling a wheelchair or retrieving dropped items), individuals with medical conditions (e.g. However, Lundqvist et al. In addition, many studies did not account for confounding variables such as having a pet dog, the progressiveness or type of disability, or relationship status. Advantages and Disadvantages of Animal Testing | Sciencing In addition to poor methodological reporting, many studies were restrained by statistical weaknesses. The final sample included 24 articles (12 peer-reviewed publications, 12 unpublished theses/dissertations) containing 27 individual studies. Animal research: Serving a vital role in psychological science. Using a different measure of emotional functioning, Rodriguez et al. Future longitudinal research in this population is necessary to understand the complex psychosocial and physical roles that guide dogs play in the lives of their handlers. [17] found an effect of having an assistance dog on mental health. Of five studies using a version of the UCLA Loneliness Scale [55] only Yarmolkevich [46] found significantly lower self-reported loneliness in those with a guide dog compared to a control group. The study of nonhuman animals has actually played a huge role in psychology, and it continues to do so today. Researchers who study nonhumans recognize that their studies may involve certain harms that can range from the relatively minor (e.g., drawing a blood sample) to the more serious (e.g., neurosurgery). In addition, we can better understand fundamental processes because of the precise control enabled by animal research (e.g., living environments, experimental conditions, etc.). Many studies did not confirm that participants across groups were statistically equivalent on key demographic variables such as age and sex/gender before conducting statistical analyses. The latter offers a more cynical take on animal welfare, namely that. Of 43 total social outcome comparisons, 7 (16%) were positive (improved or better social health in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 36 (84%) were null (no difference) and zero (0%) were negative (decreased or worse social health in comparison to pre- or control conditions). This research aimed to conduct a systematic assessment of the current state of knowledge regarding the potential benefits of assistance dogs on standardized outcomes of the health and wellbeing of individuals with disabilities. The complete MEDLINE search strategy, which was adapted for the other databases, is shown in S1 Table. Our first aim was to describe study characteristics of the literature. purpose-bred from a provider, self-trained) and breeds (e.g., Labrador Retriever, Golden Retriever, Mixes). Studies are organized by design (longitudinal or cross-sectional). The three Rs are a set of principles that scientists are encouraged to follow in order to reduce the impact of research on animals. The effects of assistance dogs on psychosocial health and - PLOS [32] found that participants reported worse occupational functioning 7-months after receiving a hearing dog while Davis [44] found that individuals with a mobility service dog reported worse occupational functioning compared to a control group. The electronic searches were performed on July 23, 2018, and updated on January 23, 2019. Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work. Because of the broad inclusion criteria, the 27 studies were widely varied in terms of human and dog participants, assessment time points, statistical analyses, and standardized outcomes. An important question for the field moving forward will be to determine for whom an assistance dog may confer the most significant psychosocial health benefits for, and under what contexts or conditions. Of 12 total vitality comparisons, 6 (50%) were positive (improved or better vitality in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 6 (50%) were null (no difference) and zero (0%) were negative (decreased or worse vitality in comparison to pre- or control conditions). In addition, the scientist must justify the numbers of animals that they use, insuring they are using the smallest number possible. Animal Studies AO1 AO2 AO3 - PSYCHOLOGY WIZARD Most longitudinal studies (8/12) assessed participants at two time points: at baseline prior to receiving an assistance dog, and an average of 5.8 +/- 3.3 months after participants received an assistance dog (range of 312 months follow-up). Fig 2 displays the total scores across each of the 15 items, separated by introduction, methods, results, and discussion sections (see S2 Table for individual study scores). [45] found higher health-related quality of life among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group, but not among those with a hearing dog. To achieve the third aim of the reviewto summarize outcomespsychosocial outcomes within each study were extracted. Longitudinal studies have found that individuals report improvements to their emotional wellbeing, social functioning, and quality of life just 3 to 6 months after receiving an assistance dog [1315]. Top 112 + Disadvantages of animal studies in psychology After receiving an assistance dog, individuals retrospectively report increases to their social, emotional, and psychological health [e.g., 1012]. The five studies which found that pet owners were less depressed had, on average, many fewer participants (Mean = 401 subjects ) than the studies that found no difference in depression rates (Mean . Because medical service dogs are a relatively new category of assistance dog placements [2], there has been less research on the psychosocial effects of medical alert and response service dogs on their handlers. To summarize study outcomes, extracted items included statistical comparisons for any psychosocial outcomes from included studies. Regarding sleep, Guest found better self-reported sleep quality 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog while Rodriguez et al. Disadvantages Of Experimental Research | ipl.org Evaluation of animal models of neurobehavioral disorders [16] found that those with a mobility or medical service dog reported significantly higher work/school functioning than a control group. Second, only 63% of studies described inclusion and/or exclusion criteria of recruited participants, and some studies did not report all demographic or disability characteristics of participants. Another potential explanation for inconsistent findings across studies lies in the inherent variability of the assistance dog intervention itself. Cruelty in Entertainment Disaster Response Companion Animals Dogfighting Dog and Cat Welfare Dog Meat Trade Farm Animals Animal Agriculture and Climate Change Factory Farming Plant-Based Eating Wildlife Fur Human-Wildlife Coexistence Rhino and Elephant Protection Seal Slaughter Shark Finning Trophy Hunting Whaling Wildlife Trade Other Ways We Help In the economic domain of the CHART, which assesses socio-economic independence, Davis [44] again found that those with a mobility service dog reported worse economic functioning than controls while two mobility dog studies reported null findings [30, 41]. We found that most studies were conducted in either the United States or the United Kingdom, but there was international representation of the research in Canada, Sweden, New Zealand, and Japan. Using the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51], Guest found increased self-reported vigor 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog and less fatigue 3-months after receiving a hearing dog. Advantages And Disadvantages Of Case Studies Psychology Essay. As research on the assistance animal-handler relationship continues to increase, there is a need for an updated, comprehensive collation of the literature encompassing studies on the effects of all varieties of assistance dogs (guide dogs, hearing dogs, and both mobility and medical service dogs) including both published studies and unpublished theses and dissertations. Future studies should provide detailed researcher-specified criteria for participation as well as organizational-specified criteria for placing/receiving an assistance dog, if applicable. In terms of emotional functioning, two studies found positive results using the SF-36 role emotional domain; Lundqvist et al. The first emphasizes that the welfare of animals is important in its own right and that animals must be treated humanely. r/psychology How to get your children to eat more fruits and vegetables: Children will eat more fruits and vegetables if families take more time to eat meals. Ironically, those animals that are likely to be the best models for psychopathology are also likely to be considered the . Longitudinal assessment time points were varied. Of 27 studies, 18 (67%) reported outcomes a standardized measure of social health with a total of 18 different standardized measures. Not only are companion dogs prevalent in modern society, but dogs are also often intentionally incorporated into therapeutic processes in the contexts of animal-assisted activities (AAA) and animal-assisted therapy [AAT; 1]. Advancing psychology to benefit society and improve lives. Secondly, many studies did not report sufficient detail in results in terms of estimates of variability and effect size. Subjectivity Researchers working with dolphins and primates have been criticised for becoming overly attached to the research and exaggerating findings. A main weakness of animal studies is that animals have a different physiology to humans. Positive outcomes included significant effects of having an assistance dog on psychological wellbeing, emotional functioning, self-esteem, and vitality. Of 147 comparisons, 44 (30%) were positive (improved or better functioning in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 100 (68%) were null (no observed difference), and 3 (2%) were negative (decreased or worse functioning in comparison to pre- or control conditions). An analysis of 147 statistical comparisons across the domains of psychological health, quality of life, social health, and vitality found that 68% of comparisons were null, 30% were positive in the hypothesized direction, and 2% were negative. In introduction sections, all studies described an objective, but only 17/27 (63%) of studies stated a directional hypothesis. The rationale for excluding qualitative studies from inclusion was to focus on outcomes using standardized measures to facilitate quantitative comparisons across studies. The scientific rigor of each study was rated according to a 5-level system while the methodological quality of each study was scored on a 7-point scale. As a final consideration, it is possible that assistance dogs may not confer significant psychosocial benefits as quantified by some of the standardized measures used. Will this monkey study, which enabled such a discovery to be made, be described? Studies were eligible for inclusion if they met the following criteria: (1) The study population consisted of current or prospective owners/handlers of an assistance dog (including service, guide, hearing, and/or medical alert or response dogs) with a physical disability or chronic condition in which the assistance dog is trained to do work or perform tasks directly related to the disability or condition [4]; (2) The study collected original data on the effect of the assistance dog on their handler with at least one psychosocial outcome, including those quantifying aspects of mental health, social health, and health-related quality of life; and (3) The psychosocial outcome(s) were collected via a standardized measure tested for validity and reliability. To compare methodological rigor by study design, an independent t-test was used to compare mean scores across longitudinal and cross-sectional designs. Most studies (24/27; 89%) assessed outcomes from a single type of assistance dog (e.g. Other studies found no effect of having a mobility service dog on quality of life including more specific measures such as physical and environmental quality of life [33, 34]. This occurred by either matching groups on select criteria or statistically comparing groups demographic characteristics before performing main analyses. Assistance Dogs International (ADI) defines three types of assistance dogs, of which we use as terminology in this review: guide dogs who assist individuals with visual impairments, hearing dogs who assist individuals with hearing impairments, and service dogs who assist individuals with disabilities other than blindness or deafness [3]. Three studies using SF-36 failed to find significant effects on the social domain; Lundqvist et al. Samples sizes ranged from 10 to 316 participants with an average sample size across all studies of N = 83 +/- 74 participants and a median sample size of N = 53. Jamie Greer, In these studies, positive findings (i.e., better social functioning in those with an assistance dog compared to a control group) may be partially attributed to an unmeasured variable driving the group difference [77]. mobility or guide), thus restricting human participants to a single category of impairments. 2016 Jul 20;91(2):453-66. Finally, most studies (21/27;78%) compared outcomes to a control or comparison condition.

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